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^HE JMPRESS 



NATIONALITIES 



UPON 



Xhe City of New York 



A PAPER READ BEFORE THE 



New York J-Jistorical Society 



JAMES W. GERARD, 

(May, 1883.) 



NEW YORK : 

COLUMBIA SPECTATOR PUB. CO. 

75 FULTON STREET. 



1883. 



'J^HE JmPRESS 



NATIONALITIES 



^he(^ityofNewYok.k 



A PATER READ BEFORE THE 



New Yo^^ Historical Society 



JAMES W. GERARD, 

(May, i883.Tl!^;" ] ] 



NEW YORK : 

COLUMBIA SPECTATOR PUB. CO., 

75 FULTON STREET. 



N 



X 



0. JLlt\ 




I 1 






Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Historical Society : 

There is no more interesting branch of sociological re- 
search than the formation of national character. 

It is proposed to review such formation as applicable to 
our ancient city. 

New York was termed ancient, in the Dongan charter of 
1686 ; and the Batavian, the Anglo-Saxon, the Celt, the 
Teuton, the Gaul, and even the sons of Ham and Shem, 
have been factors, in various degrees, in forming its civic 
character. 

It began its life when man was bloodthirsty, when natu- 
ral rights were little respected, when religion was intolerant, 
when science was in its cradle, when tyranny made the 
laws : and, when Civilization herself, still inhumane, en- 
forced her progress by the sword. 

* 

PRINCIPLES OF COLONIZATION. 

To the nervous energy of races, under various conditions, 
is due the exodus that — spreading from Central Asia, the 
cradle of man — has, in progressive migrations, populated 
the globe. 

The theory of a number of primordial ' ' autoclitliones ' ' 
(or %)olygenism>i is not substantiated by either tradition or 
science. 

Migrations and crossings, and the effects of new latitudes 
and conditions have produced, in time, the varied races of 
a single species. 

Mixed races cease in time to be mere hybrids^ and when, 
in a few generations, the new conditions have completed 
their influence the new race is formed, with distinctive 
pliysical, mental, and even moral features. 



The force of the strongest parental stock still dominates, 
liowever, and gives tone to the other elements that finally 
harmonize under it. 

The causes or conditions that induce the migration of 
grouj^s are numerous. 

The hunter seeks new areas for game, the agriculturist 
fi'esh and fertile fields, the strong and the warlike march 
for conquest, the weak for safety, the enterprising and 
curious for discovery ; the flight from justice, the thirst for 
gold, the craving for change are also potent motors. And, 
in later times, the struggle for political rights and religious 
freedom have driven millions to brave the terrors of the seas 
and the wilderness. 

The air breathed, the food eaten, the water drank, the 
physical requisitions, the local surroundings, the stub- 
borness of Nature or her bounteous smiles, the new priva- 
tions or the new relaxations — all these operate on the 
migrated man. 

Energy may be aroused and nerve force stimulated ; or 
peace and plenty may so prevail that life becomes easier, 
and the character becomes softened and sublimated. 

The migrated race has its period of critical infancy before 
it acquires the strength of adult existence. 

. The Physiological changes at first are gradual ; but soon 
the subject, under the throes of acclimatization, enters 
upon a new life that, unless there be sufficient endurance, 
may not reach the stage of re-naturalization. 

A new struggle begins under conditions foreign to the 
na tural status, which leaves to survive only those who can 
best stand the contest. 

History is full of cases where colonization has seemed 
impossible. 

"The character of a peojjle," saysTaine. "is an abridge- 
ment of all its jDreceding actions and sensations. 

"Man, forced to accommodate himself to circumstances, 
contracts a temperament and a character corresponding to 



5 

them ; and his character, like his temperament, is so much 
more stable as the external impression is made upon him 
by more numerous repetitions, and is transmitted to his 
progeny by a more ancient descent." 

THE ENGLISH EACE. 

The development of the English national character, 
under successive race infusions, affords suggestions for 
similar investigation here. 

The English field is wider, although less complex ; and 
Time, while extending the area, has condensed the view. 

The English national character may be deemed formed, 
and its race characteristics defined ; ours is still crystallis- 
ing under new ingredients. 

The Roman occuj^ation of Great Britain left no natural 
impress. 

A few mural remains — a road — a tomb — the names of a 
few towns, are all that survive to tell us that the great 
Latin race had grasped at conquest there. 

It came and passed like a sweeping wind. 

So, too, the Norsemen, although sovereigns in the realm, 
contributed nothing to the national life or character. 

The blood that flowed in torrents during their occupation 
gave no permanent footing ; and the remnants of them be- 
came amalgamated with the dominant race. 

The Angles, Jutes and Saxons — tribes of the great Teu- 
tonic race — in the i5th century, fastened themselves upon 
the land. 

The native races melted away before them. Not only 
the former social and political life was obliterated, but the 
language itself was banished, and no trace of it became 
mingled in the speech of the conquerors. 

Although silent the harj), and deposed the club and the 
spear, the ancient Briton — a hermit in his kingdom of stone 
— ^still combats the composite language that emblems the 
successive invaders 

Cymric gutturals still cling to the rocks and haunt the 



6 

rugged vales, and cluster Avithin tlie weird i-ecesses of 
Snowden — a stubborn lingual protest — fit pendant to the 
Druid monolitli — both grim monuments of a race 

The composition of the present English language, and 
the very name of the country illustrate the tenacious Saxon 
hold, and its underlying strength in forming the habits, 
thought and much of the civil polity and social life of the 
people. 

The Saxon language illustrates the home and natural life 
and the inf Uvsion of Latin and Norman additions owe their 
origin, mainly, to the political institutions and ceremonies 
of the new rulers, to the workings of the Courts of Law and 
to the machinery of ecclesiastical rule, 

Saxon thought and its lingual expression came forth, 
after a time, as did those who used it, from their Norman 
subserviency, and rose into active representative life. 

Like one of the native English oaks — the vine is there 
and parasites are there, and the axe of the conqueror has 
been wielded for centuries ; but the undying strength from 
the roots and the soil still produces the Saxon bloom. 

The amalgamation of the Saxon and Norman elements 
has formed a language, noble, varied, and strong : and it has 
established the present English race — hardy, courageous, 
progressive, and endowed with a nerve force that has 
caused it to spread over the globe, planting colonies and 
wielding empires. 

COLONIZATION OF NEW YORK. 

The history of the settlement and colonization of tliis 
city is doubtless familiar to you. 

It may l^e well, howevei-, to recall that it is more than 
two centuries and a half since a few Dutch adventurers 
established a trading post here, for the purpose of obtaining 
peltry from the Indians. 

Soon colonization began under the Dutch West India 
Company, which governed the colony, as New Nederland, 



until its surrender, in 1664, to the English fleet of James, 
then Duke of York, and proprietor of the extensive domain 
granted to him by his brother, Charles. 

After regaining possession for a year, the Dutch finally 
ceded the province to England, in 1674, under the treaty of 
Westminster. 

The English thereupon ruled, under successive colonial 
governors, down to our Revolution. 

In 1628, fourteen years after the permanent landing, the 
infant city, called New Amsterdam, contained only 270 
inhabitants ; in 1664, at the time of the first surrender, 
1,500 ; and, at the time of final cession to the English, in 
1674, about, three thousand inhabitants. 

About eighteen languages were spoken, we are told, at 
New Amsterdam, showing the extent and diversity of its 
early trade. 

In 1703, there were about 4,400 inhabitants ; and, in 
1750, the population had increased to 1 3, 000. The numbers 
then slowly increased, down to the time of the Revolution, 
when it was 22,000 ; and, in 1800, amounted to over 60,000; 
showing a great increase after the Revolution. 

Thenceforward the increase has been rapid. In 1810 the 
poj)ulation had arrived, in round numbers, at 96,000 ; in 
1820, to over 123,000 ; in 1830, to 202,500 ; in 1840, to nearly 
313,000 ; and, in 1850, to 515,000. 

By the last census of 1880, there is a population in the 
city of over 1,206,000 ; of which 198,600 are Irish born, 
163,480 are German born, and 1,860 are Holland born. 

Of course, this vast population is due more to immigra- 
tion than to natural increase. 

The tide of immigration, at first, scant, has now assumed 
the proportions of a flood of peoples. 

The first Dutch settlers were humble adventurers. 



8 

Subsequently came those of more wealth ; as the Turkey 
carpets, pictures, Spanish leather chairs, tapestry, flowered 
tabby chimney cloths, silver punch ladles and tankards, 
silk petticoats and breeches, damask furred jackets, and 
embroidered cloaks noted in old records of administration 
abundantly attest. 

Those that settled New Nederland during the Dutch 
period Avere attracted by land grants offered by the gov- 
ernment, which were continued under the English. 

Many of the immigrants were so poor that they could 
not pay their passage money. They were sold in servitude 
for it, after arrival, at public auction. 

This system was continued during the English period, 
and even after the Revolution, as late as 1819. 

It was not until 15 or 20 years after the permanent Eng- 
lish occupation that Englishmen of means, culture and 
position came over, with an idea of settling in the country, 
and bettering their conditions. 

Among other processes, they took pains to ally themselves 
with the daughters of the rich Dutch Burghers. 

There are on record many such marriages between the 
years 1680 and 1700. 

Early in the 17th century the little city began to lose its 
provincial aspect and to x)artake of the character of a me- 
tropolis, the seat of Vice Regal rule. 

Tradesmen imported foreign novelties, the residences be- 
came separate £rom the .slioi)s ; and emulation and display 
entered into social life. The household of the Provincial 
Governors, and the taste and gaiety of the French refugees, 
gave a lively tone to social life. 

The anniversary of the Restoration, of the Powder Plot, 
and the Royal birthday, vied in display with the old Dutch 
festivals of Faas and Pinxtei\ and the day of the Nieuw 
Jar and of Santa Glaus or St. Nicolas, which still retained 
their old-fashioned prominence. 



9 

The latest Engiisli fashions were adopted by the ladies, 
and the bucks of the place became peruke wearers and 
snuff-takers. 

The English governors and their wives were mostly peo- 
ple of rank ; and officers in the English army and navy 
swelled the social glories of the new regime. 

Among the prominent men of rank who were governors 
of the English Colony were Sir Edmund Andros, Colonel 
Dongan, afterwards Earl of Limerick ; the Earl of Bella- 
mont ; Lord Cornbury, subsequently Earl of Clarendon, a 
cousin of Queen Anne, who, like Nero of old, used to amuse 
himself by dressing in female attire and so perambulating 
about the Fort. Another governor, General Robert Hun- 
ter, had been an aid-de-camp to Marlborough. Lord Love- 
lace, another, was Baron of Hurley. Governor John 
Montgomerie lived here in great style ; his cellars abounded 
in wines, his table with silver ; he had a score of horses in 
his stable, and drove his coach with gilded harness, and 
postillions in gold-laced liveries. 

Governor Fletcher, who squeezed money out of the 
Province like a Roman Prjetor, flourished in a coach with 
six horses. Another, Governor Clinton, was a son of the 
Earl of Lincoln ; Governor Burnett was a son of Bishop 
Burnett, and took here to wife a lady of the old Dutch 
stock of Van Horn, 

To show the then social impress of the English aristo- 
cratic rule, I give an extract from a newspaper slip written 
by the "Jenkins" of the day, chronicling the visit of a 
sprig of nobility in 1732 : 

"The Mayor and Aldermen of the City of N. Y. being informed 
that the Riglat Hon. the Lord Augustus Fitzroy, Son to liis Grace, 
Charles, Duke of Grafton, was arrived at Fort George, they waited 
on his Lordship in a full body, attended by the principal officers of 
the City Regiment, and, being introduced to his Lordship, the Recorder 
addressed himself to him in the name of the corporation, congratulat- 
ing his Lordship's safe arrival, and returning the thanks of the City 



10 

for the Honour they received by his Lordship's Presence, as also for 
his Lordship's Condescension in being pleased to become a Member 
thereof. Then the Worshipful, the Mayor, presented his Lordship 
with the copy of his Freedom, enclosed in a curious gold box with the 
arms of the City thereon neatly engraved ; which his Lordship was 
pleased to receive in the greatest goodness and Complaisance." 

As to the general characteristics of the people in 1750, 
Mr. Biirnaby, who then visited New York, says, "More 
than half the inhabitants are Dutch, and almost all 
traders. 

"They are, therefore, particularly industrious, frugal 
and parsimonious. Being, however, of different nations, 
different languages, and different religions, it is almost im- 
possible to give them any determinate character." 

Mr. Smith, the historian, says, "the inhabitants are a 
mixed people, mostly descendants from the original Dutch 
planters. English is the most i^revailing language, but not 
a little corrupted by the Dutch dialect, which is- still so 
used in some counties that the sheriffs find it difficult to ob- 
tain English speaking jurors to serve in the courts of law." 

In speaking of the social life of the city, he remarks ui)on 
the honesty and fair dealing of the inhabitants, who are 
mostly, he says, merchants and traders. 

He speaks, however, of the general neglect of mental 
culture, and all arts for the improvement of the mind, 
especially among the fair sex, who, he says, "although 
comely, modest, and well dressed, and characterized by 
neatness and economy, and with no taste for gambling or 
other vices, neglect nothing so much as reading, and all 
arts for the improvement of the mind." 

He further says : 

" In the City of New York, through an intercourse with the Eng- 
lish, we follow the London fashions, though, by the time we adopt 
them, they become disused in England. Our affluence during the 



11 

late war introduced a degree of luxury in tables, chairs and furniture, 
with which we were before unacquainted. But still we are not so gay 
a people as our neighbors of Boston, and several of the southern 
colonies." 

The descendants of the Dutch settlers during the Eng- 
lish period kept equal in the race with their English 
brethren in all matters of political or military action and 
enterj)rise, and their names figure prominently in the State 
and municii)al annals. 

INDIANS. 

No impression has been left by the Indian Aborigines 
upon our national character. 

They were driven back and away by the axe, the gun. 
and the diseases of the invaders. 

A j)laintive lament of this appears in a petition of the 
Mohawk Indians to Grovernor Clinton in 1746, against the 
sale of more of their lands, without their consent. 

They say : "This and such like dealings, with the bring- 
ing rum to our castles, has made us dwindle away, as the 
snow does in a warm, sunshiny day." 

One of the protesting warriors signs himself "J/b^es," 
showing the incoming civilization and its effects. The name 
of another, " Teg-a-roii-de-ge,''^ sjDeaks of the old barbaric 
race in its pride and power. 

The names of some places and a few Indian words alone 
remain to tell us that the Red man once chased tlie wolf, 
and waged fierce battles over the site of our metropolis. 

THE FRENCH. 

The French element of our population was early among 
us. 

Under the persecutions of the Protestants in the time of 
Richelieu, after Rochelle was taken, and the unsuccessful 
revolts in Normandy, Picardy and Champagne, the exodus 
began. 



12 

Many settled in Holland, and thence emigrated here ; 
between 1650 and 1670. 

The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in 1685, also 
added largely to our population. 

The Huguenots were eminent for industry, charity and 
courtesy, and, in social matters, at least, have left an im. 
press upon our habits and character. 

Many Huguenot names are familiar among us. Promi- 
nent among them are those of Cosseau, Ray, De la Mon- 
taigne, De Lancey, Tourneur, Lozier, ])ef orest, Giraud. 
Goelet, C-fuion, Lisj^enard, Delaplaine, Dubois, Delamater, 
Jay, Le Roy, Bedell, Bethune, Gallaudet, Lorillard, Des- 
brosses and Angevine. 

Dongan, in his message to King James, in 1687, speaks 
of numerous French families coming over from England 
and St. Christopher. 

In 1696, there were 200 French families in the city ; and, 
in 1704, a French Huguenot Church was erected ; and soon 
afterwards, a French club was established. 

Commencing about the year 1793, there arose an extra- 
ordinary affection for France, and hostility to every thing- 
British. Fugitives arrived from the French West Indies, 
under the ferocious negro rebellions there. Also, came the 
French emigrds fleeing from the Reign of Terror. Then 
French cookery, confectionery, cotillions, ragouts and fri- 
cassees, w^ere introduced, and the city was relieved by them 
from the frying-pan of the pioneer and much of the heavy 
horrors of the English cuisine. 

Their national gaiety and courtesy, also, tended much to 
modify the habits and manners of our people, from the 
hardness, stiffness and arrogance which somewhat charac- 
terize our Anglo Saxon prototypes. 

Under the early Dutch Colonial rule also came over many 



13 

Walloons, from Flanders, who settled mostly on Long 
Island — lience tlie Wal-about, Waal-hoght, or Walloon 
Bay. 

Under the English rule, in 1708 to 1710, also came Swab- 
ians and Palatines in large numbers, driven away by poverty 
and the horrors of war. 

Most of the Palatines were sent over by Queen Anne, and 
naturalized by Royal proclamation. 

Among the Palatines, then aged thirteen, was little John 
Peter Zangerin, subsequently known as Zanger ; the hero 
of the great battle for the liberty of the press. 

All these Walloons and Palatines have long since been 
amalgamated into the general formation ; and their indi- 
viduality has long since ceased. 

NEW ENGLANDERS. 

There is another element here, which, although Anglo. 
Saxon, and formed into our local life, has, still, distinctive 
features. I refer to that of New England. 

The New Englander is more conservative in character, 
more grave in temperament, and at the same time, more 
enterprising, and more persistent in action than the de- 
scendants of the Dutch and English settlers. 

There has always been a sort of antagonism between 
New York and New England. 

The latter colonies were always jealous of New Neder- 
land, and continually threatening war. 

Connecticut sent a request to Cromwell asking him to 
exterminate the Dutch settlement. And New Englanders 
came to assist the English fleet, under Nichols, when New 
York was taken by him, and even proffered Indian auxil- 
liaries. 

Director Kieft, in a letter responsive to certain com- 
plaints of the United Colonies of New England, in 1646, 



\ 



14 

observed that their complaints of ill usage were the com- 
plaints of the wolf against the lamb ! 

GovernorNichols, in 1666, in a despatch to the Earl of Clar- 
endon, advocating a direct trade between Holland and New 
York, uses as an argument that "The strength and flour- 
ishing condition of this place will bridle the ambitious 
saints of Boston ! " 

In 1688, New York and the otlier New England Colonies 
were consolidated under one provincial dominion, which 
lasted until the accession of William and Mary. 

Chroniclers tell us that New York protested against this 
annexation "As an unmerited state of degradation ; which 
they contemplated with just dissatisfaction, as an abhorred 
connection." 

It seems, therefore, there was no love lost in the olden 
time. There is good feeling and fellowship enough now, and 
a peaceable quiet invasion of New York in business and 
professional circles is continually in progress, without mur- 
mur. The laudation of New England and its sons, however, 
is rather too much dinned into our ears by those sons deni- 
zened here, and the changes are played on Plymouth Rock 
until we have become heartily tired of the contimial reveille. 
With all due respect for New England, and admiration for 
its enterprising and cultured sons and daughters, the queer 
question arises continually in our minds, why, if it be such 
a delectable and superior place as is so abundantly lauded, 
should her sons and daughters desert it in such flocks and 
locate themselves in such an inferior place as New York. 

POLITICAL PRINCIPLES. 

As regards the political principles planted among us by 
the various settlers here, although the Dutch possession 
was comparatively brief, that people left a strong political 
impress materially modifying that of the succeeding na- 
tionality. 

The Dutch founders of this State brought with them the 
same principles and spirit of independence that had char- 



15 

acterized their forefathers and made them, in Europe, the 
pioneers of civil rights. 

These principles had become national instincts, and, with 
them they laid the foundations of a State to be as free and 
tolerant as the fatherland which had been rescued from the 
tyranny of Spain and the thraldom of the Inquisition. 

In Holland oppression had united them and made them 
self reliant. 

Indignant at the outrages inflicted by hereditary rulers, 
they revolted against such dominion, and transferred to 
these shores not only their industry and their hardihood, 
but also the seeds of liberty, which, germinating in a free 
field, bore the sturdy plant that in time worked its way 
into strong life and fruition. 

Our municipal system was founded on the burgher sys- 
tem of the Dutch communities. 

The Declaration of Independence of the United Provinces 
against the Spaniard, appears to be the precedent of our 
own declaration of 1776 ; and the model of Government 
established by the United Netherlands was the model of 
our own national system. 

Although the Dutch here cheerfully submitted to the 
English rule, which was, in the main, parental and kindly, 
a Dutch democratic counter current against the aristocratic 
tendency of government and society was obvious. This mani- 
fested itself , prominently, when Rip Van Dam, the President 
of the Council, in 1735 occupied the gubernatorial chair dur- 
ing an interregnum prior to the arrival of the English Gov- 
ernor Cosby, and who was removed by that Governor for 
disloyalty. 

The Dutch and Presbyterian elements of the population 
were generally in political, and even social opposition to 
those of the Episcopal Church. Of the former were the 
members of the Whig Club formed in 1762, who used to 
drink toasts to the memory of Oliver Cromwell, John 
Hampden and Parson Hugh Peters. 

The actions brought against Trinity Church to oust 



16 

her from her farm lands bore a semi-political character, and 
were instigated by the Presbyterian or Whig party, as 
against the Ej)iscopal or administration party. 

The lirst New York Bill of Rights was passed by the 
iirst Colonial Assembly, in 1683. This Assembly was com- 
posed mostly of men of Dutch name and descent ; and 
although it was repealed in 1686, by direction of James, its 
principles of religious tolerance, and of taxation only by 
representation, had taken root, and the violation of its spirit 
by King James and his governors sowed the seeds that 
brought fruit in the vindication of such political rights in 
1776 as the Dutch had fought for in 1572. 

Prominent among incidents during the English political 
period was the assumption of the government by Leisler, 
who claimed to hold the province for the Prince of Orange 
on the abdication of James. His action was supported 
mainly by those of Dutch descent and sympathy. Leisler 
was supposed to be the leader of this party as opposed to 
the aristocratic element. Governor Sloughter on his arrival, 
siding with the latter, had Leisler executed for treason. 

Another prominent occurrence, showing the growth of 
Democracy, was the trial of Zenger in 1735. It was the out- 
come of a struggle of the j^ojDular party, wdiich manifested 
itself in articles in a newspaj)er published by Zenger re- 
flecting on Governor Cosby' s administration. 

On the trial of Zenger for libel the patriotic and the aristo- 
cratic party took sides, and the jury gave the former a tri- 
umph by acquiting Zenger. By this trial the principle 
was established, in New York, that the people had a right 
to criticise and protest against the acts of those in power. 

It has been said of this trial, that it gave confidence to 
infant opinion which caused it to be regarded as the morn- 
ing star of American freedom. 

Following down the tide of time the organization called 
the Sons of Liberty next appears upon the scene, in the 
momentous period that preceded the Revolution. 

Both races, Dutch and English, had now become inter- 
mingled. 



17 - 

A community of dangers and of interests made tliem 
united. The principles of tlie Dutch Declaration of Freedom 
.and of the English Bill of Rights formed a common ground 
of protest and of resistance. 

Our local annals are full of the deeds of these Sons of 
Liberty. 

They oi3posed the Stamp Act passed in 1765 ; they held 
public meetings on the Common, they hung the Lieutenant- 
Governor and a figure of the devil in effigy and burned 
them before the fort. Under their influence leagues were 
formed with the other colonies against the imi^ortation of 
English goods — homespun became fashionable — ladies re- 
fused to be married so long as their licenses had to be on 
stamped joaper ; liberty poles sprang uj) around the city — 
armed bands paraded the streets — which Anally marching 
to a vessel newly arrived caj)tiired all the stamped paper 
that had been sent over. A tea party, also, took place, 
similar to the one at Boston, and a body of citizens calling 
themselves Mohawks, but acting without Indian disguise, 
discharged into the river the tea chests imported by the 
ship London, in A^^ril, 1774. 

Resistance to the Stamp and other acts of the British 
Parliament continued here with a spirit and determination 
quite equal to that of the New Englanders, until the spirit 
of resistance culminated in the Revolution. 

As early as 1744 Governor Clinton had thus written to 
the Duke of Newcastle with reference to a proj)osed 
stamp duty : ' ' The people of North America are quite 
strangers to any duty but such as they raise themselves, 
and was such a scheme to take place without their know- 
ledge, it might have a dangerous consequence to his Ma- 
jesty's interest." 

In July, 1775, Governor Tryon thus wrote to the Earl of 
Dartmouth, when speaking of the condition of affairs in 
New York: "Oceans of blood may be spilt, but, in my 
opinion, America will never receive Parliamentary taxa- 
tion." 



18 

Wlien we consider the principles and origin of the then 
population of our city, we can well imagine that the men 
there were not afraid of Revolution. 

There were the descendants of the Dutch patriots, of 
Independents of the English lighting stock under Crom- 
well ; of French Huguenots, of banished Covenanters from 
Scotland, of soldiers of Monmouth's rebellion, and of men 
who had fought under the banner of both of the Pretend- 
ers. 

TRADE. 

A review of the trade of the Early Dutch, its develop- 
ment under the West India Comx)auy, and its subsequent 
course under English colonial and subsequent state rule 
would be interesting. 

Time, in a discourse of this nature, will not allow a re- 
view of that feature of our municix:)al life. 

A spirit of commercial enterprise seems to have charac- 
terized this city from its origin, when in 1610 Dutch vessels 
were sent over to open trade with the natives ; and in 1G24 
four thousand beaver and 700 otter skins were exported. 

Tlie thrift and plodding industry and business sagacity 
of the Dutch has left its mark to this day, and laid the 
foundation for the commercial eminence of the Metropolis. 

During the English period the commercial enterprise and 
prosperity of the city rapidly developed. 

The English administration sought in every way to de- 
press and discourage all efforts at manufactures here, but 
the busy city rose above the jealous policy, and not only had 
a large commerce but many manufactures. In 1750 we find 
the city exporting to England grain, furs, oil, spermaceti, 
lime juice, snuff, candles, skins, lumber, whale oil, bones, 
logwood, mahogony and general West India goods. 

To the West Indies lumber and European and East In- 
dia goods ; also, flour, bread, j)ease, pork and horses. From 



19 

the West India were imported mostly rum, sugar, logwood 
and molasses. There was also an active coasting trade witli 
the N. E. colonies and Virginia of grain, lumber and Eng- 
lish goods. 

There was also an active trade with Madeira, Teneriffe, 
ports on the Bay of Biscay, and with Minorca and Gibral- 
tar. 

The above shows what a busy city this was even before 
the Revolution. 

The slave trade was one feature of our municipal life that 
both Dutch and English were responsible for. 

Slaves were dealt in as an article of import and export 
without any sense of moral wrong. In 1718, there were as 
many as 517 slaves imported here from Africa and the West 
Indies. 

As an instance of the moral darkness even of those days, 
we find that slaves were kept in ignorance and not tutored 
in the Christian faith, under either the Dutch or English 
rule, until 1688, when a law was passed which was generally 
disregarded. The ignorance in which they were kex)t was 
doubtless under the moral theory propounded by Lord Coke 
that Christians being servants of Christ might lawfully hold 
in bondage pagans, who were bond holders of Satan. 
Therefore Satan was not interfered with ; and, under Gov. 
Dongan, some Spanish Indian slaves were ordered to be 
sent out of the Colony if it was found they could say the 
Lord's prayer. 

TOLEKATION. 

The Spirit of Toleration which prevailed under the Dutch, 
and even under the English rule, laid the foundation for 
the liberal and tolerant principles which have distinguished 
this State. New Amsterdam was always a refuge for those 
persecuted for conscience's sake. 



20 

Tn Holland, religions freedom was acknowledged as a 
hnman right, and the Dntch States became an asylum for 
the oppressed of all lands. 

These principles of toleration were maintained by the 
Dutch settlers of new Nederland ; and not lost under the 
English rule. Walloon fugitives came there from the 
Spanish Netherlands, Lutherans from Germany, Puritans 
from England, Huguenots from France, Waldenses from 
Piedmont, harassed Jews from Spain ; also Quakers and 
Anabaptist refugees from New England. 

Francis Doughty, a clergymen, driven from Massachu- 
setts for asserting that Abraham's children should have 
been baptised, Lady Deborah Moody for her views against 
infant baptism, Throgmorton and his followers, Roger 
AVilliams, Anne Hutchinson, and even old Katy Harryson, 
the Connecticut witch, and many other religious refugees 
from New England, and also Father Jogues, the Jesuit 
missionary, found aid and shelter here. In fact, little New 
England colonies of refugees were planted all about New 
Amsterdam. There is no stain of blood on New Amster- 
dam for any condemnation for religious opinion. The 
witchcraft delusion found no home with the peoj^le of this 
place ; although they had New England for an example, 
distracting homes and leading protesting innocents to the 
stake. 

By the terms of surrender to Colonel Nichols, in 1664, 
the Dutch inhabitants were to enjoy liberty of conscience, 
and of Church discipline. 

In 1687 James II. made his proclamation in England and 
the colonies, declaring liberty of conscience and of wor- 
ship, and suspending all laws against non-conformity. 

It was this declaration that the English Bishops refused 
to read from their pulpits ; and which precipitated the 
English Revolution of 1689. 

Governor Dongan, who was a Catholic, in his report to 
the Board of Trade in 1687, says : 



21 

"New York has, first, a chaplain belonging to the Fort, of the 
dhurch of England ; secondly, a Dutch Calvinist ; third, a French 
Calvinist, and fourth, a Dutch Lutheran. 

" Here bee not many of England ; a few Roman Catholics ; abund- 
ance of Quaker preachers, men and women especially ; Singing 
Quakers; Ranting Quakers ; Sabbatarians; anti-Sabbatarians; some 
Anabaptists ; some Independents ; some. Tews; in short, of all sorts of 
opinions there are some ; and the most part of none at all !" 

Under William and Mary, however, and the subsequent 
reigns, there was great intoleration against Roman Catho- 
lics. By the penal laws in force, many were virtually dis- 
franchised, and John Wry, under the main charge of being 
a priest in disguise, was hung in 1741. By a law passed in 
1700, also, Roman Catholic priests found in the colony 
were subject to imprisonment for life. 

The English test act was also in force here after the Eng- 
lish revolution, and city officials, before qualifying, had to 
make declaration of their " disbelief in transubstantiation 
and that the sacrifice of the Mass and the worship of the 
Virgin were idolatrous and superstitious." 

CLIMATE AND NEW CONDITIOlSrS OF LIFE. 

In the beginning of this paper reference has been made 
to the general physiological changes attendant upon col- 
onization in new latitudes. 

The Anglo-Saxon has been the dominant type of the 
colonizing man here, and the deviations from that tyjje, in 
the course of two centuries, are notable. 

The original colonizing Dutchman and Frenchman have 
been absorbed by intermarriage into the more numerous 
Anglo-Saxon ; and the conditions of settlement and acclim- 
atization, acting on that type, have produced, at this time, 
a new deviating race. 

Such deviation is apparent in the physical, mental, and, 
perhaps, moral attributes of the new race ; and also in its 
lingual expression. Under the conditions of the new life, 
to a great extent adventurous, nerve force and energy were 
called upon, and developed rapidly. 



22 

There was a struggle with Nature and the savage, a 
deprivation of luxury, and no repose from toil or care. 

Hence, the colonist and his offspring became active, rest- 
less, industrious, anxious, enterprising, and ingenious. 
Each colonist stepped out into his individuality and laid 
the foundation of self-sovereignty. The dependence of his 
old life was lost ; and the energy and self-reliance of his 
new one began. 

A spirit of enterprise and restlessness — a dis23osition to 
advance became characteristic of the new race, and have 
contributed in causing physiological modification. 

Climatic changes and local stimuli, therefore, have, in 
time, irritated the nervous system into impulses that have 
caused an abnormal activity, resulting, as it is claimed, in 
a disturbance of the general j)hysiological balance. 

Speaking of the changes induced by increased nervous 
nutrition, Dr. Verity, an English writer of note, on nervous 
changes, says : 

"Among jjie changes effected in the course of the physiological 
amelioration of the human type, are those of the nervous system at 
large; where, besides the amplified volume and enhanced tempera- 
ment of the cerebral masses, the different structures of the body 
become interpenetrated with a more copious interlacement of nervous 
webbing, whereby all the complicated mechanism of animal and 
organic life is made to perform its various functions with more energy, 
more breadth, and more endurance. " 

On the other hand, he dej)recates the over-development 
of the nervous system, as tending to physical deterioration ; 
and argues, that the proper equipoise of the physical and 
mental frame must be maintained through a more athletic 
development, by a return to the muscular activity and 
invigorating habits, pursuits, and regime of the ancestral 
type. 

Three local words that have been coined into our lan- 
guage seem to illustrate the effects of the developed nerve 
force here, and portray the new resulting moral race-char- 
acteristics — these are the verbs, to "progress," to "locate," 
and to "realize." 



23 

The physical changes produced by nervous action, were 
noticed by early historians and travellers here. 

The historian Smith speaks, in abont 1760, of the inhabi- 
tants of New York as being generally healthy and robust, 
but shorter lived than Europeans ; and, both with respect 
to their minds and bodies, that they arrive sooner to an age 
of maturity. He says, also : 

Breathing a serene, dry air, they ai-e more sprightly in their natural 
tempers than the people of England. 

John Lambert, a traveller who visited New York in 1808, 
speaks of the general ill health and debility of the inhabi- 
tants, and the prevalence of bilious and nervous diseases. 
He also speaks of the premature decay of the teeth, among 
the j)eople ; and, although he pays a tribute to the attrac- 
tions of the New York ladies, he states that they do not 
"enjoy their beautie for so long a period as Englishwomen, 
neither do they possess the blooming countenance and rosy 
tinge of health." 

Quatrefages, a recent and learned French wiiter on 
ethnology, thus writes : 

"Two centuries and a half, twelve generations at the most, separate 
the English race in America from the epoch of its permanent settle- 
ment in the country; and, nevertheless, the Anglo American (the 
' Yankee ' ) no longer resembles his ancestors. The fact is so striking 
that the eminent zoologist, Andrew Murray, when endeavoring to 
account for the formation of animal races, finds that he cannot do 
better than appeal to the condition of man in the United Stfites. * * 
* * At the second generation, the English Creole in Nortli America 
presents in his features an alteration which approximates him to the 
native race. Subsequently the skin dries and loses its rosy color, the 
glandular system is reduced to a minimum, the hair darkens and 
becomes glossy; the neck becomes slender, and the size of the head 
diminishes. In the face, the temporal fossae are pronounced, the 
cheek bones become prominent, and the orbital cavities become 
hollow. Lastly, the woman, in her structural proportions, approaches 
to those of the man. " 

The anthropologist, Knox, and others who think with 
him, take the extreme view that the European immigrant, 
after several generations, loses the power of perpetuating 



24 

tlie race ; and that a continuous stream of immigration 
from robust European sources is necessary to maintain the 
white population of the United States ; and as a corrollary 
to this, they claim, that were it not for the stream of Ger- 
man and Irish immigration, the Red Skins would again 
reign in North America ; and the descendants of the Mon- 
tezumas in the South. 

We can, in this view, picture to ourselves, instead of the 
New Zealander of the English humorist gazing over the 
ruins of London, some Pawnee or Flat Head from the 
West chasing the cougar or the moose over the tottering 
arches of the Brooklyn bridge, or a bevy of squaws pound- 
ing corn in the ruined chancel of Trinity Church ! 

A more recent observer, Miss Beecher, says, in her letter 
to the people, ' ' Travellers when they go to other countries, 
especially when they visit England, from whence our ances- 
tors came, are struck with the contrast between the ap- 
pearance of American women and those of other countries, 
in the matter of health." 

She also says, that the standard of health among Ameri- 
can women is so low that few of them have an idea of what a 
healtliy woman is ; and that she (Miss Beecher) is not able, 
in her immense circle of friends and acquaintances, all over 
the Union, to find so many as ten married ladies born in 
this century and country, who are sound, healthy and vigor- 
ous." 

The above and other writers seem to conclude that the 
effect of the excessive development of the nerve force not 
accompanied, as in the early days of pioneer life, with mus- 
cular effort, and the deprivation of luxury and other con- 
comitants of civilized life, have, together with the effects of 
a climate of extremes, caused a fibrous and muscular relax- 
ation which have induced physical deterioration and dis- 
eases that have become almost national. 

An argument a posteriori, as to the general changes of 
health, suggests itself in the fact that the most showy and 



25 

most numerous of all the shops in our villages and cities is 
the druggist shoiD ; and it is the favorite social exchange of 
the place. 

In our cities druggists are found at every corner, while 
at London or Paris it is difficult to find one, anywhere. 

At this day, the physical changes of the average Ameri- 
can of the Eastern cities, as distinguishing him from the 
English progenitor, are the following : 

The neck has become elongated ; the hair has ceased to 
curl ; the bones are smaller ; the foot is shorter and higher 
in the instep ; the jaws or jowls have become narrower, and 
cannot maintain the normal amount of teeth ; the normal 
pulse is quicker ; the voice is higher and thinner, with a 
nasal intonation ; the lungs and chest smaller ; the stature 
is at least a half head shorter ; the frame fifteen per cent, 
less in bulk ; the sx^eech is in a monotone, direct and quick 
and without inflections ; the complexion has become dry 
and sallow ; the expression of the face has become sombre, 
and the brow corrugated ; and the dryness of the air has 
darkened the hair and the skin. 

The curious tendency to exj)ectoration at all times 
and places, has also been much observed as a national dis- 
tinction. The above changes are not so remarkable among 
the people of the Western States and Territories, who are 
nearer the pioneer period, and where muscular life still con- 
trols. 

The above changes, however, in general distinguish the 
Anglo-American almost as much from the Anglo-Saxon of 
England, as the Anglo- American is distinctive from the 
American Indian, who, after being so entirely acclimated 
as to have arrived at the perfection of physical health, is 
now physically deteriorating under the influences of civili- 
zation. 

As to the physical advantage or the aesthetic excellence of 
the above physiological changes, I am not prepared to 
speak. 



2Q 

There is no doubt that, at this time, we have assumed a 
distinct normal type and are becoming accustomed to it. 

Perhaps, even to the disinterested international observer, 
the light, graceful Mercury flying to the skies and waving the 
magic cadueeus that changes everything into gold, will be 
preferred to the massive, club-wielding Hercules, accom- 
plishing, it is true, great labors, when aroused, but compar- 
atively heavy and passive. 

The type of the Hebe, too, may charm as much as the 
stately Juno over the water ; and possiblj^, in time, when the 
amalgation of races is complete, immigration diminished, 
and nerve force in better equipoise with the rest of the sys- 
tem, unless a Mongolian ingredient is introduced, new Ap)ol- 
los and Venuses may arise and Anglo-Americans become 
a typical race of perfected humanity. 

So, evidently, thinks our admirer. Professor Quatrefages, 
above alluded to. 

The Professor combats the conclusions of Knox that the 
changes above enumerated are signs of a degradation al- 
ready accomplished and of an approaching extinction. 

He perorates as follows : 

' ' We are sufficiently acquainted with American men and women to 
know that, altliough modified, tlie pliysicial type is not lowered, in the 
scale of races : and the social grandeur of the United States, the mar- 
vels they have accomplished, the energy with which they pass through 
the rudest crises, prove that, from every point of view, the Yankee 
race has retained its rank. It is simply a new race formed by the 
American conditions of life, but which remains worthy of its elder 
sisters in Europe ; and will, perhaps, some day, surpass them." 

Dr. Verity also gives us some comfort, when he lays down 
the law that the progression of nervous nutrition in the hu- 
man body is a law of advancing civilization. 

The mental and moral changes between Englishmen and 
the Anglo-American are also sensible. 



27 

As mental activity has been more quickened, the area of 
intelligence has proportionately been more diffused. Under 
the influence of common dangers and efforts, and a com- 
munion of interests, the disposition has become less rigid 
and selfish, and more sympathetic and generous. 

There is less individual pride and more general courtesy 
and cordiality, although less polish. 

There is also less brutality and bloodthirstiness here, es- 
pecially among the lower classes. 

There has disappeared from the Anglo-American the 
curious instance of Atavism so common in England and the 
delight of the French caricaturist — the open mouth, elevat- 
ed nostril and projecting front teeth — relic of the flesh- 
tearing cave-dweller or flint- sharpener. 

As another instance of our changed humanitarianism, 
there has disappeared from our prayer book, the bloody 
anathemas and the invocation to the God of battles to de- 
stroy and cut off all those who are not Englisli, which still 
characterize the religious formula of the European descend- 
ants of our Anglo-Saxon progenitors. 

IRISH AND GERMAN. 

We come now down to the i^eriod of the great Irish and 
German immigration. 

These nationalities have exercised great influence upon 
this city and its inhabitants. The general causes of their 
leaving their native shores have been the inducements of 
higher wages, cheap land, political freedom, social equality, 
lighter taxation ; and, for the German, above all, exemp- 
tion from military service. Great periods of famine have 
sent increased numbers ; also great commercial jDanics, 
distress in manufacturing districts, and reaction after 
revolutionary movements. 

New York City endures most of the evils, and gets least 
of the advantages of immigration. 

The bulk of those that have money pass through — the 
pauper and the vicious generally remain. 



28 

Our city lias been compared to a filter in which the 
stream of immigration is purified before ir passes westward. 
Of immigrants from the continent of Europe, seventy-five 
per cent., it is estimated, pass westward, and only about 
twenty-five per cent, remain. Of those from Ireland, 
seventy-five per cent, remaiii, and twenty-five per cent, pass 
on. 

In 1780 to 1794, the average arrivals here were only 8,000 
per annum ; from 1820 to 1826, there was an annual aver- 
age arrival of 9,500. 

In 1842 there was 104,505 ; in 184G, there were 154,400 ; 
and, in 1847, 284,900. 

From 1845 until 1854 inclusive, in consequence of signs 
of revolution, 1,226,392 Germans arrived at New York, 
and, for the same iDeriod, 1,512,100 Irish. 

During the last year (1882) nearly half a million alien 
passengers arrived at this port, of whom the most numer- 
ous were Germans, and the next in number Irish. This is 
an increase over the immigrants arriving ten years back of 
200,000. 

The first Irish immigrant we hear of was a servant girl 
belonging to Isaac Allerton, the English tobacco merchant, 
in 1655 ; who is recorded to have beaten her for skylarking 
with his servant man, Jonathan. 

A letter has come down to us from an early Irish immi- 
grant (one James Murray) written to his old pastor, Rev. 
Baptist Boyd, in 1737, extolling the advantages of the new 
land. An extract is as follows : • 

' Read this letter, Rev. Baptist Boyd, and look and tell aw the poor 
folk of ye place that God has opened a door for their deliverance. 
Desire my Fether and my Mether, too, and my three sisters to come 
here ; and ye may acquaint them there are lads enough here ; and bid 
my brother come, and I will pay their passage. Desire James Gibson 
to sell aw he has and come ; for here aw that a man works for is his 
ane; and there are ne revenue hunds to rive it frae us here; but every 
yen enjoys his ane, and there is ne yen [one] to tak awa yep Corn, yer 
Potatoes, yer Lint or yer Eggs — na, na, — ! blessed be his Name, ne 
yen gees Bans for his ane here. Ye ken I had but sma' learning when 
I left ye ; and now, wad ye think of it, I hea 20 pund a year for being 



29 

a Clark to York Meeting house; and Keep a Skulle for wee weans — 
Ah, dear sir, there is braw living in tliis same York — for big learned 
men — for, I will tell ye, in short, this is a bonny country and aw 
things grows here that ever I did see grow in Ereland." 

Immigration might well be induced also by sucli mel- 
lifluous descriptions of tlie land as were written by Mr. 
Charles Wooley, an English traveller here, in 1678. He 
described the climate in the following highly Latinized 
English : 

" The climate is of a sweet and wholesome breath. Nature kindly 
drains and purgetli it by Fontanels and issues of running waters in its 
irriguous valleys, and shelters it with the Umbrellas of all sorts of 
trees from pernicious lakes; which trees do insensibly suck in and 
digest into their own growth and composition those subterraneous 
particles and exhalations whicli Avould otherwise become matter for 
infectious clouds and malign atmospheres. I myself, seemingly of a, 
weakly stamen and a valetudinary constitution, was not in the least 
indisposed in that climate during my residence there." 

The early immigrants devoted themselves, if possible, to 
the obtaining of land for agricultural purposes ; and, 
although the wages of labor were high in the city, as soon 
as they arrived sought to be proprietors of farms. Gov- 
ernor Moore, writing in 1768, says : 

"They quit their masters and get a small tract of land, in settling 
which, for the first three or four years, they lead miserable lives and in 
the most abject poverty ; but all this is patiently borne and submitted 
to with the greatest cheerfulness. The satisfaction of being land- 
holders smooths every difficulty and makes them prefer this manner 
of living to that comfortable existence which they could procure for 
themselves and their families by working at the trades in which they 
were brought up. " 

This feeling for agricultural pursuits seems strongly to 
influence the Continental immigrant in his march west- 
ward. 

The Irish, from their knowledge of the language, have 
exerted a stronger influence upon our city than the Ger- 
mans, who keex) more ai)art, and a greater proportion 



HO 

of wliom travel westward, or settle in districts of the city 
where they are separated from the rest of the population ; 
while the Irish mingle in more promiscuously with the 
earlier population. 

Indeed, from the number of the Irish and their descend- 
ants now established here, Ireland, instead of England, 
might now be regarded as the mother country ; or, rather, 
the step-mother country. 

An ex-state senator, at a late public meeting, said, exult- 
ingly : " Probably the time will soon come when the Irish 
'Will have 'New York, and elect an Irish mayor." An Irish- 
man, lately, in our House of Representatives, where his 
principal occupation is to assail the British lion, paid 
America the back-handed compliment of stating that "Ire- 
land was the nursery of American brains and bravery." 
He quoted a good deal of poetry to sustain his position. 

We have thus briefly reviewed the various elements and 
nationalities that have united in forming our citizens. 

The race nucleus with us, as it is in England, is the An- 
glo-Saxon. 

The Dutchman and the Frenchman of the early settle- 
ment have flowed into the general result, although each 
has impressed upon it a part of his distinctiveness. 

England, however, is still recognized as the mother 
country. Its race still dominates while the new one is 
forming. The history of England is ours — its language, its 
literature, its morals, its modes of thought, and princi- 
ples of action. 

We still look to English opinion for approbation. We 
wince under the criticism of its authors and its press, and 
look up to its learning and culture. Our youth adopt 
its manners and pursue its sports ; and our maidens are 
willingly cast to the Moloch of English titled grandeur, or 
look to temporary admission into the spangled arena of a 
London season as the acme of social delight. 

The vast floods of Irish and Germans that make with their 
descendants a great and useful part of our population, have 



31 

been of too late introduction to be factors in the formation 
of our general local character. 

They are still to a certain extent apart from each other, 
and from the descendants of the colonial denizens. They 
still retain their race individualism of temperament and 
physique. Their robust industry and powers of endurance 
have made them mighty agents in building up the city and 
the nation, and their great numbers, their active and ag- 
gressive spirit, and, above all, their cohesion, have made 
them powerful in our political life. 

We are now indirectly, if not directly, ruled by immi- 
grants, or the sons of immigrants. 

While New England thrift and pertinacity have made 
the New Engiander here comparatively at the head of our 
commercial life, those of Irish blood are practically the con- 
trolling political power. 

If others murmur at this condition it may be answered 
that it is one of their own sufferance. 

It is natural that the immigrant should seek rule if he 
lias the enterprise to grasjD it, and when the door is left wide 
open ; and those of other thought and nationality must 
often bear the rule, even, at times, of those not morally 
fitted for power, if they have not the energy and the public 
spirit that makes thought action, and action success. 

Probably there is no city in Christendom where there is 
such an indifference on tlie part of the enlightened citizen 
to public affairs, where public spirit is so sluggish, and 
where political principle is so absorbed and controlled by 
partisanship. 

This may, perhaps, arise from the fact that our mixed 
races, not being yet consolidated, are wanting in that unity 
of thought and character that forms and harmonizes public 
sentiment and impels its action. 

There is much political effort here, but such efforts made 
frequently without political conviction and for private aims 
lead to demagogism ; and, in time, debase public life and 
make it odious. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



32 0'002 551 201 



% 



With many drawbacks, however, there is much to praise 
and love in our ancient city. 

There is among us a wide-spread charity — a liberal and 
tolerant sentiment towards all men, a general appreciation 
of what is good and noble, a generous hospitality and a 
lofty spirit of enterprise and ambition, that impels us on- 
w^ard in spite of the heavy drags upon us of a great part of 
the crime and pauperism of foreign lands, and the evils of 
political misrule. • 

As in the days of our Dutch predecessors, we open our 
arms to all men, and welcome, still, the religious exile — the 
political refugee. 

The oppressed and dow;n-hearted of all lands find wel- 
come and relief here. 

Those who leave behind them a depressed condition of 
existence in the Old World, find here a higher and freer 
life, where all may aspire and all may succeed. 

Here they may live in peace and equality, under the 
Mgis of the. Spirit of Liberty, soon to be emblemed on our 
shores, holding aloft her torcli of guidance over the West- 
ern seas, and beaming with a light that shines for all. 



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